Routing is a sometimes-confused aspect of
networking, which can be complicated due to lack of fundamental
understanding and training. All information that travels through a
network has two things in common: a device that sent it and a required
routing decision. The decisions for these routes are conducted by
comparing the destination address to a list of entries located on a
routing table or stored in a remote location. The routing table is
normally configured and built by the network administrator or from
information gathered by the TCP/IP system. These configurations can
take place in a number of ways to ensure the best and most secure
transport of information. Windows Server 2008 has a number of features
that previous versions of
Windows Servers possessed as well as some new added updates. Before
reviewing changes to the system let’s take a better look at the
fundamentals of routing.
Routing Fundamentals
When
attempting to select a path in a network by which to send data or
physical traffic, an administrator has many options available to him.
There are a number of ways to send packets from one destination to
another based on intermediary hardware or nodes. This can include a
number of different hardware devices including bridges, gateways,
routers, firewalls, and switches. Even computers with multiple network
cards are capable of routing packets. There are different types of
routing algorithms or protocols that can be used to organize the signal
flow between these devices.
These algorithms rely on what is called a routing metric,
a value used by a routing algorithm to determine whether one route
should perform better than another. Metrics can include a number of
different parameters to judge performance by, as configured by the
administrator.
On the simplest level, the system will select an entry from the routing table and use the netmask from that entry (see Figure 1).
The system then performs a comparison of this value and the destination
address. The resulting value is cross-referenced to the network address
in the table entry. If the two values match, the information can arrive
at the destination through the gateway in that entry. If the two values
do not match, the routing system continues along the routing table to
the next entry and performs the same check again. If the “no matching
entry” is found on the table, the routing system discards the packet
and generates a message notifying the sender that the destination
network cannot be reached.
Otherwise,
when a routing table entry is found that matches the network value, the
packet is sent based on the information in the table entry via the
destination listed. If the destination exists on a portion of the
network directly connected to the routing system, the packet is
delivered to the destination system. If it does not exist on the same
segment, the packet is sent to a gateway system for delivery. This is a
very complicated way of describing what is referred to as static routing.
Tip
Take
advantage of the fundamentals of routing by practicing with routing
tables and configuring your traffic flow. Remember that even the most
complicated networks can find a need for the use of static routing. Be
aware of how static routing can affect a system as opposed to dynamic
routing.
When
working with Windows Server 2008, you can configure the static routing
table in many ways. With Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), you can configure the table with routes by removing or changing them. For example:
1. | To display the entire contents of the IP routing table you can type route print.
| 2. | To display the routes in the IP routing table that begin with 10. type route print 10.*
| 3. | To add a default route with the default gateway address of 192.168.10.1, type route add 0.0.0.0 mask 0.0.0.0 192.168.10.1.
| 4. | To add a route to the destination 10.40.0.0 with the subnet mask of 255.255.0.0 and the next hop address of 10.20.0.1, type route add 10.41.0.0 mask 255.255.0.0 10.20.0.1.
| 5. | To
add a persistent route to the destination 10.41.0.0 with the subnet
mask of 255.255.0.0 and the next hop address of 10.20.0.1, type route -p add 10.40.0.0 mask 255.255.0.0 10.27.0.1.
| 6. | To
add a route to the destination 10.40.0.0 with the subnet mask of
255.255.0.0, the next hop address of 10.20.0.1, and the cost metric of
7, type route add 10.40.0.0 mask 255.255.0.0 10.20.0.1 metric 7.
| 7. | To
add a route to the destination 10.40.0.0 with the subnet mask of
255.255.0.0, the next hop address of 10.20.0.1, and using the interface
index 0x3, type route add 10.40.0.0 mask 255.255.0.0 10.20.0.1 if 0x3.
| 8. | To delete the route to the destination 10.40.0.0 with the subnet mask of 255.255.0.0, type route delete 10.40.0.0 mask 255.255.0.0.
| 9. | To delete all routes in the IP routing table that begin with 10. type route delete 10.*
| 10. | To
change the next hop address of the route with the destination of
10.40.0.0 and the subnet mask of 255.255.0.0 from 10.20.0.1 to
10.20.0.25, type route change 10.40.0.0 mask 255.255.0.0 10.20.0.25.
|
If using IPv6, you can add a route just as easily. For example:
11. | To display the entire contents of the IP routing table you can type route print -6.
| 12. | To add a route, type route add 3ffe::/32 3ffe::1.
|
|
Tip
When
using Windows Server 2008, remember that the output of the route
command will now show IPv6 options by default. For the exam, make sure
that you are familiar with the options of IPv6 and the route command.
Static Routing
Static routing
describes a system that does not implement adaptive routing in its
configuration. In these systems, routes through a network are defined
by set paths referred to as static routes,
which are inserted into the router manually by the system
administrator. This is accomplished via the route command, which can be
used to manipulate local routing tables. There is no fault tolerance in
regards to static routing. Changes to the network or a failure between
two statically defined nodes will cause any traffic between those
points to not be rerouted. This means any packets that are awaiting
transport between the affected paths will be forced to wait for repairs
to the failure, or for an updated static route by the administrator.
This also leaves open the issue of the request timing out before
repairs can be made to the route.
Static
routing is considered the simplest form of routing and requires
excessive manual processes. It often is the least efficient way of
routing in cases where information paths have to be changed frequently.
This is also the case for configurations that require a large number of
routing devices, because each one must be manually entered. Static
routing is also the least preferred method of dealing with outages or
down connections, because any route that is configured manually must be
reconfigured manually to fix or repair any lost connectivity.
There
may be many downsides to static routing, but there are many incidents
where a static route is the most logical and efficient method for
routing. Static routing is the opposite of dynamic routing, which is a
system in which routers will automatically adjust to changes in network
topology or traffic. Dynamic routing is used by most modern routers, but some amount of programming is still available for customizing routes if necessary.
As
we mentioned earlier, you as an administrator will need to deal with
clients and employees of your company attempting to access the network
and Internet. The Internet and Local Area Networks (LANs) are referred
to as packet switching networks. The
idea of packet switching networks is defined by the ability to optimize
the use of the channel capacity available in a network. This helps to
minimize transmission latency. This also requires the use of specific
protocols for directing traffic through them. There are two major
classes of routing protocols used in packet switch networking today:
Distance-vector Routing Protocol
A distance-vector routing protocol requires that a router contact and
transmit to its neighbors of topology changes to the network. The
frequency of this must be periodic and in most instances when a change
is detected. Routing Internet Protocol (RIP) is the most popular
example of this type of protocol.
Link State Protocol
The simplest explanation of link-state routing is that every node
(router) is given a map of the topology of the network. This map is in
graph form and shows the connectivity of nodes in the network. Then
each individual node calculates the next best hop from every node in
the network. This information then forms the routing table for each
individual node based on its calculations. No other communication
occurs between nodes. The most popular version of this is the OSPF.
Routing Internet Protocol (RIP)
The
RIP was once the most commonly used Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) on
internal networks. It was also commonly used on networks connected to
the Internet. RIP was used to help routers dynamically adapt to the
variety of changes made to network connections. It accomplished this by
relaying information about which networks each router had access to,
and the distance those networks were from each other.
Although
RIP is still actively used and has an important place in some networks,
it is generally considered a dying protocol, which has been replaced by
other routing protocols such as OSPF. RIP is a distance vector routing
protocol that employs the hop count as a routing metric. RIP allows a
maximum of 15 hops. The total hold down time for transfer is 180
seconds. Most traffic at the time RIP was commonly used was not
significant, so each RIP router had an update time of 30 seconds by
default, which was common practice. This proved to be a poor
configuration and was later changed to randomized updates.
RIP
is limited in a number of ways due to its lack of scalability. It
prevents routing loops from continuing indefinitely, by implementing a
limit on the number of hops allowed in a path from the source to a
destination. It also limits the size of the network that RIP can
support by design.
On
the other hand, RIP is easier to configure than many other protocols,
because it uses one of the smallest amounts of settings of any routing
protocols. RIP does not require the use of any parameters on a router,
and it can be ideal for small networks. RIP can be configured through
the RRAS, which we will discuss later.
Note
Microsoft Windows Server 2008 supports RIP version 2 within RRAS.
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
OSPF
was the natural successor to the RIP. OSPF protocol is a hierarchical
IGP that uses a link state in the individual areas that make up the
hierarchy. A link state database (LSDB) creates a tree-image of the
network topology. It then sends copies of the LSDB periodically to
update all routers in the area of the OSPF network.
OSPF
is the most widely used IGP in regards to large enterprise networks. It
has a much larger network size range than RIP. The OSPF protocol can
determine the best path by communicating with other routers and then
saving the routes in their LSDBs securely.
An OSPF network is divided into areas, which contain area identifiers.
These identifiers are 32-bit and are usually written in the format of
an IP address. Be aware that area identifiers are not IP addresses, and
may often times duplicate any IP address without conflict occurring.
These areas are logical groupings of routers whose information may be
communicated to the rest of the network. There are several types of
areas in an OPSPF network:
Backbone Area
The backbone area forms the central hub of an OSPF network. All other
areas are connected to it, and inter-area routing happens via routers
connected to the backbone area and to their own non-backbone areas. The
backbone area distributes all routing information between the
non-backbone areas. The backbone must be adjacent to all other areas,
but does not need to be physically contiguous. Connectivity can be
established and maintained through virtual links. All OSPF areas must
connect to the backbone area. This connection, however, can be through
a virtual link.
Stub Area
The stub area is an area that does not receive external routes except
the default route, but does receive inter-area routes. All routers in the
area need to agree they are stub, so that they do not generate types of
LSA not appropriate to a stub area. Stub areas do not have the transit
attribute and thus cannot be traversed by a virtual link.
Not-so-stubby area (NSSA)
The Not-so-stubby area (NSSA) is a type of stub area that can import
autonomous system (AS) external routes and send them to the backbone,
but cannot receive AS external routes from the backbone or other areas.
The NSSA is a non-proprietary extension of the existing stub area
feature, which allows the injection of external routes in a limited
fashion into the stub area.
Warning
As
of this writing, the OSPF routing protocol component is no longer
present in Windows Server 2008. Although this may not be covered in the
exam extensively, knowledge regarding this protocol will help you
better understand RIP and other routing protocols by comparison, and
will help with real-world applications that may occur as a consequence
of the removal of this element.